Recent advances in systemic and local delivery of ginsenosides using nanoparticles and nanofibers

Ginsenosides are the main pharmacologically active constituents of ginseng which have been used in East Asian countries for centuries to modulate blood pressure, metabolism and immune function. Following the technological advances in isolation, purification and mass production, their mechanisms of action are gradually elucidated, providing solid basis for clinical applications. Ginseng extracts (total ginsenosides) and ginsenoside Rg3, CK, Rd have been marketed or entered clinical trials as drugs or dietary supplements. Despite the proven safety and efficacy of some ginsenosides, their applications are hindered by inferior pharmacokinetics such as low solubility, poor membrane permeability and metabolic instability. Nanoparticle formulation of drugs and implantable drug depots are effective strategies to improve the pharmacokinetics of therapeutic agents by enhancing solubility, providing protection, facilitating intracellular transport, and enabling sustained and controlled release. This mini-review summarizes the recent advances in systemic delivery of ginsenosides using liposomes, micelles, albumin-based nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, as well as local delivery of ginsenosides by electronspun fibrous membranes and hydrogels.