Understanding Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Environmental Persistence, Health Risks, and Regulatory Challenges

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have emerged as a persistent and pervasive class of synthetic chemicals, widely used in industrial and consumer applications for their unique water-, oil-, and stain-resistant properties. This comprehensive review synthesizes multidisciplinary research addressing the historical evolution, chemical properties, environmental fate, and contamination pathways of PFAS, alongside their significant human health and ecological impacts. Despite decades of application and subsequent phase-out of certain legacy PFAS compounds" specifically, such as by naming PFOS and PFOA, these “forever chemicals” continue to persist in the environment, bioaccumulate in wildlife, and pose complex health risks including endocrine disruption, immunotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. This review also critically examines current regulatory frameworks and policy challenges at international and national levels, highlighting substantial gaps that persist between scientific findings and legal standards. Moreover, it discusses the technological hurdles in detecting and remediating PFAS contamination and outlines future research directions aimed at improving analytical methodologies, refining toxicokinetic models, and developing innovative, cost-effective remediation strategies. Additionally, this review underscores the urgent need for coordinated scientific, regulatory, and industrial efforts to mitigate the multifaceted threats posed by PFAS to public health and the environment.