Plasma surface engineering for efficient and stable perovskite solar cells and modules

The instability of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) stems largely from the formation and evolution of interfacial defects associated with the soft, multicomponent perovskite lattice. We report a scalable, plasma-based passivation strategy that forms conformal, uniform, and strong-bonded heterostructure through in situ chemical reactions on large-area perovskite films. This approach also mitigates defect accumulation within the laser-scribed interconnection regions, where localized damage often dominates module-level performance losses. We achieved a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 27.2% in small-area devices (active area 8.313 square millimeters) and 24.0% (certified efficiency of 23.5%) in 100-square-centimeter (cm 2 ) modules (aperture area 65.05 cm 2 ). The small-area device retained 98.1% of its initial PCE after 2000 hours of maximum power point tracking at 85°C under 1-sun illumination, and the 100-cm 2 module retained 99.3% of its initial PCE after 1600 hours at 65°C under 1-sun illumination.