Vitamins As Neuro-Regulators: A Modern Review Of Their Biological And Therapeutic Roles

The human nervous system depends upon a continuous supply of micronutrients to maintain structural integrity, biochemical signaling, neurotransmitter balance, and neuroprotective resilience. Among all micronutrients, vitamins occupy a central regulatory role, acting as coenzymes, antioxidants, neuromodulators, and gene-expression regulators. During the past two decades, research in neurobiology, clinical neuroscience, and nutritional neuropsychiatry has increasingly revealed the multifaceted effects of vitamins on cognitive performance, neuronal development, neuroplasticity, redox balance, myelin maintenance, synaptic transmission, neuroimmune crosstalk, and neurodegeneration. Despite the progress achieved, the scattered nature of findings across biochemical, clinical, and epidemiological domains has made it challenging to consolidate a unified mechanistic understanding. This review synthesizes contemporary evidence on the role of vitamins as neuro-regulators, focusing on their molecular mechanisms, system-level functions, therapeutic potential, and limitations. Emphasis is placed on the B-complex vitamins, vitamins A, C, D, and E, and emerging insights into vitamin-like cofactors such as choline and Coenzyme Q10, which share overlapping neuroprotective roles. Discussions include the influence of vitamins on neuronal energy metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, neurotrophic factors, neural membrane stability, oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial functioning, and the gut–brain axis. The review further examines clinical evidence regarding vitamins in neurodevelopmental disorders, neuropathies, mood disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, demyelinating conditions, stroke recovery, and neuroimmune disorders. Recent trials underscore that targeted vitamin supplementation may enhance neurocognitive outcomes, particularly in deficiency states, while their benefits in healthy adults remain variable. Overall, vitamins act as indispensable neuro-regulators through tightly interconnected biochemical networks. Understanding these pathways is essential for developing precision-nutrition-based strategies to support neurological health. The review concludes by highlighting current knowledge gaps, methodological limitations in clinical trials, and future directions for translational research.