Molecular mechanisms of flowering phenology in trees

Flower initiation is a phenological developmental process strictly regulated in all flowering plants. Studies in Arabidopsis thaliana, a model plant organism in plant biology and genetics, and major cereal crops have provided fundamental knowledge and understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms and regulation in annuals. However, this flowering process and underly molecular mechanisms in perennials are much more complicated than those in annuals and remain poorly understood and documented. In recent years, the increasing availability of perennial plant genomes and advances in biotechnology have allowed the identification and characterization of flowering-associated gene orthologs in perennials. In this review, we compared and summarized the recent progress in regulation of flowering time in perennial trees, with an emphasis on the perennial-specific regulatory mechanisms. Pleiotropic effects on tree growth habits such as juvenility, seasonal activity–dormancy growth, and the applications of tree flowering phenology are discussed.