Functional scaffolds and methods for bone tissue engineering applications

Bone tissue engineering is an evolving area of tissue engineering using conventional and state-of-the art 3D printing methods. The present review focuses on introducing different methods used in developing scaffolds from biocompatible and biodegradable materials using several tissue engineering techniques including 3D printing. In addition, surface modification methods were also discussed to ensure the functionality of the scaffolds that facilitate a differentiation response in human mesenchymal stem cells in vitro or in vivo bone mineralization.