Neurotherapy for children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders: a state-of-the-art umbrella review of selected clinical methodologies

This umbrella review focuses on the clinical application of four neurotherapeutic treatment approaches, namely (1) Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), (2) Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS), (3) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and (4) Neurofeedback (NF) in children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders. Following theoretical descriptions, explaining the mechanisms of action and general modes of operation of each neurotherapy, the scientific evidence for its clinical application, with a focus on children and adolescents is reviewed, summarized and discussed. In a third step, an overview of clinical protocols and treatment procedures in relation to the different clinical populations is provided, followed by a section summarising safety and tolerability assessments for each neurotherapy. Finally, a conclusion is drawn for each neurotherapeutic method, highlighting possible shortcomings and drawbacks, but also discussing future directions.