Ecotoxicity and Sustainability of Emerging Pb‐Based Photovoltaics

Emerging Pb-based photovoltaic (PV) technologies, including in particular solution processed halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and Pb chalcogenide quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs), are among the most promising next-generation photovoltaic technologies for a range of disruptive energy and electronic applications. However, the potential toxicity and leakage of hazardous Pb species have become one of the main barriers to their large-scale application. When solar cells are subject to physical damage or failure of encapsulation, rapid leakage of Pb may occur, which can be accelerated by exposure to external environmental weathering conditions such as rainfall and elevated temperature. In this review, we undertake an in-depth investigation on the essential role of Pb in PSCs and QDSCs, as well as common causes of Pb leakage. The hazardous effects of Pb toxicity on soil plants, bacteria, animals, and human cells were also evaluated. We then summarized recent progress in developing effective strategies for Pb leakage reduction, such as Pb-free or Pb-less perovskite materials, device architecture design, encapsulation absorbers for PSCs, and core-shell structure and ligand exchange method for QDSCs, in addition to Pb recycling strategies of end-of-life solar cells. Our review provides quantitative insights into the future development of eco-friendly emerging Pb-based PV technologies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.