Mixed chlorine/chloramines in disinfected water and drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs): A critical review

Mixed chlorine/chloramines are commonly occurring in real drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) but often overlooked. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the occurrences, characteristics, analysis methods, and control strategies of mixed chlorine/chloramines in DWDSs. The characteristics of mixed chlorine/chloramine species are summarized for treated water in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), secondary disinfection facilities, and DWDSs where different disinfectants could be blended. The key to differentiating and quantifying mixed chlorine/chloramine species is to separate organic chloramines (OCs) from di/tri-chloramines and overcome certain interferences. The complex interactions between water matrixes and chlorine/chloramine species could accelerate pipeline corrosions, enhance emerging disinfection by-products risks, lead to off-flavors in drinking water, and induce bio-instability issues (such as nitrification, microorganism regrowth, and promotion of horizontal gene-transfers). Three promising strategies for alleviating mixed chlorine/chloramine species are recommended, which include (i) removing precursors intensively and reconditioning the treated water, (ii) combining UV irradiation to eliminate undesired chlorine/chloramines species, and (iii) strengthening monitoring, operation, and maintenance management of DWDSs. Finally, the challenges for gaining insights into the mechanisms of mixed chlorine/chloramine species conversion are discussed and promising research directions are proposed.