Assessing predator–prey interactions during the Late Triassic of India from bite marks onHyperodapedon(Archosauromorpha, Rhynchosauria)

Multiple cranial and mandibular remains of Hyperodapedon huxleyi known from the lower part of the Upper Triassic Maleri Formation were examined to reveal distinct bite marks. These were identified as punctures based on their circular or oval or elliptical outline and deep penetration into the cortical bone, and were found associated with several bone-damaging features such as radiating fractures, serrated boundaries, and collapsed bony surface. In addition, bite traces or drag marks in the form of parallel grooves with U-shaped cross sections are identified. The bite marks are compared with dental morphology of varied Late Triassic carnivores of India, and the probable producers are suggested to be phytosaurs and dinosauriforms. The Maleri trophic structure or food web is reconstructed to reveal interconnectedness between different animal groups, unconfined feeding habits of the animals where the predators were inclined towards opportunistic feeding rather than a niche-based dietary habit. The study highlights the significance of bite marks in the reconstruction of ancient paleoecosystems.