On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research.

This article provides a quantitative review of the link of emotional labor (emotion-rule dissonance, surface acting, and deep acting) with well-being and performance outcomes.The metaanalysis is based on 494 individual correlations drawn from a final sample of 95 independent studies.Results revealed substantial relationships of emotion-rule dissonance and surface acting with indicators of impaired well-being (s between .39 and .48)and job attitudes (s between Ϫ.24 and Ϫ.40) and a small negative relationship with performance outcomes (s between Ϫ.20 and Ϫ.05).Overall, deep acting displayed weak relationships with indicators of impaired well-being and job attitudes but positive relationships with emotional performance and customer satisfaction (s .18and .37).A meta-analytic regression analysis provides information on the unique contribution of emotion-rule dissonance, surface acting, and deep acting in statistically predicting well-being and performance outcomes.Furthermore, a mediation analysis confirms theoretical models of emotional labor which suggest that surface acting partially mediates the relationship of emotion-rule dissonance with well-being.Implications for future research as well as pragmatic ramifications for organizational practices are discussed in conclusion.