Lumen charge governs gated ion transport in β-barrel nanopores

Abstract β-barrel nanopores are involved in crucial biological processes, from ATP export in mitochondria to bacterial resistance, and represent a promising platform for emerging sequencing technologies. However, in contrast to ion channels, the understanding of the fundamental principles governing ion transport through these nanopores remains in its early stages. In this study, we integrate experimental, numerical, and theoretical approaches to elucidate ion transport mechanisms in these biological nanopores. We identify and characterise two distinct nonlinear phenomena: open-pore rectification and gating. Through extensive mutation analysis of aerolysin nanopores, we demonstrate that open-pore rectification is caused by ionic accumulation driven by the distribution of lumen charges. Additionally, we provide converging evidence suggesting that gating is controlled by electric fields dissociating counterions from lumen charges, promoting local structural deformations. Our findings establish a rigorous framework for the characterisation and understanding of biological ion transport processes, enabling the design of adaptable biosensors. We illustrate this by optimizing an aerolysin mutant for computing applications, paving the way for novel nanofluidic technologies.