Thermodynamic nonequilibrium effects in three-dimensional high-speed compressible flows: Multiscale modeling and simulation via the discrete Boltzmann method

Three-dimensional (3D) high-speed compressible flow is a typical nonlinear, nonequilibrium, and multiscale complex flow. Traditional fluid mechanics models, based on the quasi-continuum assumption and near-equilibrium approximation, are insufficient to capture significant discrete effects and thermodynamic nonequilibrium effects (TNEs) as the Knudsen number increases. To overcome these limitations, a discrete Boltzmann modeling and simulation method, rooted in kinetic and mean-field theories, has been developed. By applying Chapman–Enskog multiscale analysis, the essential kinetic moment relations Φ=(M0,M1,M2,0,M2,M3,1,M3,M4,2,M4,M5,3) for characterizing second-order TNEs are determined. These relations Φ are invariants in coarse-grained physical modeling, providing a unique mesoscopic perspective for analyzing TNE behaviors. A discrete Boltzmann model, accurate to second-order in the Knudsen number, is developed to enable multiscale simulations of 3D supersonic flows. As key TNE measures, nonlinear constitutive relations (NCRs) are theoretically derived for the 3D case, offering a constitutive foundation for improving macroscopic fluid modeling. The NCRs in three dimensions exhibit greater complexity than their two-dimensional counterparts. This complexity arises from increased degrees of freedom, which introduce additional kinds of nonequilibrium driving forces, stronger coupling between these forces, and a significant increase in nonequilibrium components. At the macroscopic level, the model is validated through a series of classical test cases, ranging from one-dimensional to 3D scenarios, from subsonic to supersonic regimes. At the mesoscopic level, the model accurately captures typical TNEs, such as viscous stress and heat flux, around mesoscale structures, across various scales and orders. This work provides kinetic insight that advance multiscale simulation techniques for 3D high-speed compressible flows.