Food-energy-water nexus with agrivoltaics integration in greenhouses for sustainable food production: A review

Greenhouse farming offers a climate-resilient solution for food production; however, it remains constrained by high energy demands and inefficient resource utilization. Conventional energy systems rely heavily on fossil fuels, leading to elevated operational costs and environmental impacts. Photovoltaic integration into greenhouse structures has emerged as a promising approach to address the dual challenge of energy demand and resource optimization. This review critically analyzes the application of opaque and semi-transparent photovoltaic technologies in greenhouses across diverse climates conducted over the past one and a half decades. It evaluates their impact on microclimate regulation, energy generation, crop performance, and resource-use efficiency, based on findings from experimental and modeling studies. Results show that opaque photovoltaic systems with 20-40% roof coverage can reduce internal air temperatures by 3-5°C and generate up to 203 kWh/m² annually. Semi-transparent photovoltaic systems enable electricity production ranging from 20 to 128 kWh/m², support light-sensitive crops, and reduce temperature by 1-3°C. Resource utlization benefits include water savings of up to 29% and reduced pesticide use through ultraviolet filtering. Economic assessments suggest that specific PV configurations can achieve favourable payback periods between 5 and 6 years. However, broader commercial feasibility remains limited due to variable capital costs and unquantified seasonal trade-offs. Achieving an optimal balance between electricity generation and crop performance remains a central challenge, as increased shading can compromise plant growth depending on species and coverage strategy. This review provides an integrated framework to guide the selection of PV technologies, the design of climate-responsive greenhouse systems, and the formulation of supportive policies for sustainable agrivoltaic implementation.