Application of steel slags, ferronickel slags, and copper mining waste as construction materials: A review

Concrete is the most produced construction material in the world and has a close tie to carbon dioxide emissions. To reduce the gas pollution and resource drain of cement production and utilization, researchers have replaced some of the cement and natural aggregate content with industrial by-products such as steel slag, ferronickel slag, copper tailings, and copper slag. However, a comparison of these widely used by-products in the construction industry, especially in the environmental health aspect, has not been discussed. This paper examines and compares these four by-products critically, with a particular emphasis on their chemical compositions, performance in concrete, and environmental suitability as construction materials. Generally, these industrial wastes can be used to increase specific mechanical properties of the concrete when used as a partial cement and fine aggregate replacement. The environmental concerns were evaluated by looking at leaching test data, finding most studies reporting leached heavy metal contents below specific standards. This paper's comprehensive review and analysis can be considered for practical use. The paper also addresses gaps in different slags (e.g., steel and copper slag) and copper waste (e.g., copper slag and tailing), and future research opportunities for using metal production by-products.