Ostracism and social exclusion: Implications for separation, social isolation, and loss

Ostracism-being ignored and excluded-has received considerable experimental research attention over the last 25 years. Ostracism signals social separation, isolation, and loss, and responses vary across time. Ostracism episodes as short as 2 min result in physiological pain responses, need threat, and emotional distress, followed by cognitive, emotional, motivational, and behavioral responses that either increase the likelihood of subsequent inclusion (at the cost of being socially pliable), or ensure further ostracism through aggression or solitude. Longer-term ostracism leads to resignation, accompanied by alienation, depression, helplessness, and feelings of unworthiness of attention by others. This review focuses on current research on factors that prolong the isolation and loss associated with ostracism, and on interventions that may speed recovery.