Hierarchically Porous Carbons from Almond Residues via Hydrothermal Pretreatment and Mild K 2 CO 3 Activation for Aqueous Zinc Hybrid Supercapacitors

High Resolution Image Download MS PowerPoint Slide Agricultural residues offer a scalable feedstock for sustainable carbon electrodes, yet achieving high electrochemical performance in aqueous zinc-ion hybrid supercapacitors (ZHSCs) often relies on harsh activating agents and low carbon yields. Here, almond-tree pruning residues (AT) and almond shells (AS) are converted into porous carbons via hydrothermal pretreatment (HTC) followed by mild K 2 CO 3 activation, enabling hierarchical porosity while limiting excessive burnoff. The HTC-assisted route markedly enhances N 2 -accessible surface area and mesopore volume, improving electrolyte accessibility and ion-transport pathways, while the presence of oxygen-containing groups contributes to favorable interfacial interactions in aqueous media. AT-derived carbons consistently outperform AS counterparts, highlighting the strong influence of precursor architecture on activation efficiency and pore connectivity. In a two-electrode aqueous ZHSC configuration (Zn metal anode; porous carbon cathode), the best performing AT-derived electrode delivered a specific capacity of 142 mAh g –1 at 0.1 A g –1 with 91% capacity retention after 10,000 cycles at 10 A g –1 . Electrolyte chemistry plays a key role in durability: zinc trifluoromethanesulfonate (ZTFS) provides higher capacity retention and improved reversibility than ZnSO 4, consistent with a more uniform Zn deposition and the formation of a less crystalline, fluorine-containing interphase, as evidenced by post-mortem analyses. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and galvanostatic intermittent titration techniques further support faster interfacial kinetics and more favorable transport in the best-performing carbon, in line with its balanced hierarchical porosity and surface chemistry. The device achieves an energy density of 87.8 Wh kg –1 at 62.3 W kg –1 and retains 37.9 Wh kg –1 at 13.6 kW kg –1, matching or surpassing many biomass-derived ZHSC cathodes prepared using more corrosive chemicals. Overall, this work demonstrates a greener, yield-efficient pathway to high-performance carbon cathodes for aqueous zinc-based hybrid energy storage.