A comprehensive review on epigenetic and epitranscriptomic-mediated regulation of antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic resistance is the leading cause of death globally, with a higher possibility of the emergence of highly resistant pathogens, leading to epidemics. Several antibiotic resistance mechanisms have been discovered, such as enhanced efflux of antibiotics, reduced influx of antibiotics, alteration of antibiotics or their targets, and adaptation to antibiotics. However, this mechanism cannot fully explain the development of antibiotic resistance because the genes associated with this mechanism have been elucidated. However, the factors governing their regulation are not yet fully understood. Recent studies have highlighted the epigenetic and epitranscriptomic roles of antibiotic resistance development-associated genes. Epigenetic modification is associated with DNA modification, whereas epitranscriptomic modification is associated with RNA modification to control gene expression by regulating various biological phenomena such as splicing, translation, and stability. Therefore, this review will focus on the discovery of epigenetic modifications, particularly by DNA methyltransferases, such as restriction-modification (R-M) systems associated with methyltransferases, orphan DNA methyltransferases, and nucleoid-associated proteins that contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance. This scrutinization further expands to epitranscriptomic modification of non-coding RNA, which has a role in the regulation of antibiotic resistance. Epitranscriptomic modification of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which is a major target of antibiotics, has been well explored. while non-coding RNA such as cis and trans small non coding RNA, and riboswitches are poorly explored. This epigenetic and epitranscriptomic modification will help to understand the regulation of antibiotic resistance-associated genes, which will help to identify key regulators of antibiotic resistance, paving the way for new antibiotic discovery, leading to decreased antibiotic mortality globally.