A Low-Cost and Green Si-Based Anode Material for Lithium-Ion Batteries

The conception of cheaper and greener electrode materials is critical for Li-ion battery manufacturers. In this study, it is shown that a by-product of the carbothermic reduction of SiO 2 to Si, containing Si, SiC and C materials, can be valorized as a low-cost and high-capacity anode material for Li-ion batteries after an appropriate high-energy ball milling treatment. The latter results in the production of a micrometric powder (D 50 ~1 mm) in which submicrometric SiC inclusions are embedded in a nanocrystalline/amorphous Si matrix. Such a microstructure prevents the deleterious formation of c-Li 15 Si 4 phase, which is well known to accentuate particle cracking. As a result, the electrode is able to maintain a capacity >1000 mAh g -1 (>3 mAh cm -2 ) over 100 cycles. Moreover, calendering has no negative impact on the electrode performance. However, a significant and irreversible increase of the electrode mass and thickness was observed over cycling, which is mainly attributed to the accumulation of SEI products. In order to have deeper insights into the microstructural evolution of the electrode during cycling, a focused ion beam (FIB) milled microcavity (45×20×50 µm 3 ) was created in the center of the pristine electrode. This cavity was observed by SEM at different cycling periods of a single electrode ( Fig. 1a ). This investigation method allows following the same electrode along different steps of its cycling, nearly as for an in-situ method. Additionally, backscattered-electron (BSE) imaging was performed on broad ion beam (BIB) polished cross-section of the electrode after different periods of cycling ( Fig. 1b ). The morphological change is characterized at the electrode and particle scales by monitoring the thickness, mass, porosity and macrocracking of the electrode, SEI layer thickness and particle morphology. On the basis of these investigations, a more comprehensive view of the degradation phenomena of the electrode is established. Figure 1