Guilt and empathy: Sex differences and implications for the development of depression

Adult depression is typified by prolonged episodes of sadness and inability to experience pleasure. There are different types of depression with a variety of causes as well as physical, cognitive, and affective symptoms. Physical symptoms include disturbances in activity, sleep, and eating patterns. Affective and cognitive symptoms include passivity, confusion, pessimism, helplessness, worthlessness, self-blame, and guilt. There are also different models of depression that tend to emphasize specific symptoms. The biological models, for example, focus on vegetative signs, biochemical changes, and brain-behavior pathways that are involved in depression. The cognitive and psychodynamic theories are based on reasoning, beliefs, and mood.