Recombination Dynamics in PbS Nanocrystal Quantum Dot Solar Cells Studied through Drift–Diffusion Simulations

The significant performance increase in nanocrystal (NC)-based solar cells over the last decade is very encouraging. However, many of these gains have been achieved by trial-and-error optimization, and a systematic understanding of what limits the device performance is lacking. In parallel, experimental and computational techniques provide increasing insights into the electronic properties of individual NCs and their assemblies in thin films. Here, we utilize these insights to parameterize drift–diffusion simulations of PbS NC solar cells, which enable us to track the distribution of charge carriers in the device and quantify recombination dynamics, which limit the device performance. We simulate both Schottky- and heterojunction-type devices and, through temperature-dependent measurements in the light and dark, experimentally validate the appropriateness of the parameterization. The results reveal that Schottky-type devices are limited by surface recombination between the PbS and aluminum contact, while heterojunction devices are currently limited by NC dopants and electronic defects in the PbS layer. The simulations highlight a number of opportunities for further performance enhancement, including the reduction of dopants in the nanocrystal active layer, the control over doping and electronic structure in electron- and hole-blocking layers (e.g., ZnO), and the optimization of the interfaces to improve the band alignment and reduce surface recombination. For example, reduction in the percentage of p-type NCs from the current 1–0.01% in the heterojunction device can lead to a 25% percent increase in the power conversion efficiency.