Mitochondria-lysosome-extracellular vesicles axis and nanotheranostics in neurodegenerative diseases

The intricate functional interactions between mitochondria and lysosomes play a pivotal role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and proper cellular functions. This dynamic interplay involves the exchange of molecules and signaling, impacting cellular metabolism, mitophagy, organellar dynamics, and cellular responses to stress. Dysregulation of these processes has been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, mitochondrial-lysosomal crosstalk regulates the exosome release in neurons and glial cells. Under stress conditions, neurons and glial cells exhibit mitochondrial dysfunction and a fragmented network, which further leads to lysosomal dysfunction, thereby inhibiting autophagic flux and enhancing exosome release. This comprehensive review synthesizes current knowledge on mitochondrial regulation of cell death, organelle dynamics, and vesicle trafficking, emphasizing their significant contributions to neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, we explore the emerging field of nanomedicine in the management of neurodegenerative diseases. The review provides readers with an insightful overview of nano strategies that are currently advancing the mitochondrial-lysosome-extracellular vesicle axis as a therapeutic approach for mitigating neurodegenerative diseases.