Exploring energy mechanisms involved in the luminescence reduction due to Ce3+ doping via core-multishell upconversion nanoparticles highly doped with Ho3+ and Yb3+

Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), particularly those that are highly doped, possess outstanding properties and have demonstrated tremendous application potential. However, novel fine-tuning strategies are urgently required to enhance the upconversion luminescence (UCL) performance of UCNPs. In this study, a series of core–multishell UCNPs highly doped with Ho3+ and Yb3+ ions were synthesized via the oleate route. The X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and UCL spectra and decay times, and pump power dependency of the synthesized UCNPs were used to examine their morphology, size, and the UCL properties. Ce3+ ions were introduced to enhance Ho3+-based red UCL, and their doping strategy was also optimized based on summarized UCL trends and detailed UCL mechanism analysis. NaHoF4:Gd3+@NaGdF4:Yb3+,Ce3+@NaGdF4:Yb3+ UCNPs that had 10 mol% Ce3+ dopants in their middle shells exhibited better UCL properties than the larger traditional NaGdF4:Yb3+,Ce3+,Ho3+ UCNPs, probably because of the combined influence of the energy interactions between the Ce3+ ions and surface groups, sensitizing energy enhancement by active shells, and the positive cooperation between the Ce3+ ions and highly-doped core–shell structures. In this study, the phenomenon of UCL decrease resulting from Ce3+ ion doping was explored. Using unique core–multishell structures with highly-doped activators and sensitizers placed within and outside the structures, respectively, the UCL decrease due to Ce3+ ion doping was attributed to a competition for photons. Doping the UCNPs with Ce3+ ions near the UCNP surfaces favors Ho3+-based red UCL. Our study findings can deepen the understanding of the Ho3+-based UCL mechanisms and increase the potential uses of NaHoF4 materials in photo-induced therapy.