Bisphenol A removal with nitrification and denitrification: Occurrence, mechanism, and microbial mutualism

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an emerging contaminant that disrupts endocrine systems and poses significant risks to organisms. It is increasingly detected in municipal wastewater due to its widespread use and high production volume. Despite this, gaps remain in understanding the sources of BPA in municipal wastewater, its effects on nitrification and denitrification, and the potential for its co-removal with ammonia or nitrate during biological nitrogen removal processes. This review first examines the sources of BPA, primarily from industrial effluents and landfill leachates, which enter wastewater treatment plants alongside domestic sewage. Additionally, it meticulously elucidated the influences, co-removal with nitrogen performance, and biotransformation mechanisms of BPA during nitrification and denitrification processes, shedding light on biotransformation pathways, functional microbes and key enzymes. While there is no consensus on BPA removal in anoxic conditions, aerobic environments support its biodegradation through various microorganisms. Lastly, the potential for microbial cooperation to enhance BPA and nitrogen co-removal is discussed, focusing on bacterial mutual alliances and bacteria-algae metabolic interaction consortiums. This review provides valuable guidance for the synergistic removal of BPA and nitrogen in wastewater treatment processes.