Surface-Engineered Ethambutol-Loaded Nanoparticles: Design, Fabrication, and In Vitro–In Vivo Evaluation for Tuberculosis Therapy

pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated an 8.5-fold increase in ETB bioavailability with Mn-ETB-SNs compared to the pure drug, accompanied by prolonged circulation and reduced hepatic metabolism. Biodistribution analysis revealed preferential and sustained lung accumulation, with Mn-ETB-SNs achieving 4.74-fold higher pulmonary concentrations at 48 h compared to free drug, owing to mannose receptor-mediated uptake by alveolar macrophages. Collectively, the findings highlight the potential of orally administered Mn-ETB-SNs as a promising nanocarrier system for targeted TB therapy. The developed formulation offers improved bioavailability, site-specific drug delivery, and enhanced pulmonary targeting, addressing key limitations of conventional TB treatment.