The Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Human Health: A Follow-Up Study Focusing on Endocrine, Nervous, and Immune Systems

Abstract Plastic production has surged over recent years, leading to widespread environmental contamination by microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs). These particles, due to their small size and persistence, can enter the human body via ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact and have been detected in various organs including the lungs, liver, bloodstream, and even cerebrospinal fluid. This study examines the impact of microplastics and nanoplastics (M-NPLs) on three critical physiological systems: the endocrine, nervous, and immune systems. Despite the essential roles these systems play in human health, their vulnerability to M-NPLs remains underexplored. This paper reviews exposure pathways, translocation mechanisms, and how MPs/NPs interact with these systems to induce hormonal disruption, neuroinflammation, and immune dysregulation. Given their ability to cross biological barriers, M-NPLs may pose significant systemic health risks. However, current limitations in detection methods and the lack of long-term human data hinder accurate risk assessment. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted research to better understand the systemic toxicity of M-NPLs.