Progress in research on the generation and applications of vascular organoids

Vascular organoids (VOs) are constructed by directing the differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) into two key functional vascular cell types—endothelial cells (ECs) and mural cells (MCs). This process generates perfusable, three-dimensional (3D) vascular networks [1]. This model recapitulates key structural features, cellular composition, and some core functions of the in vivo vascular system. Key characteristics include simulating dynamic in vivo microenvironments and constructing functional microvessels and organ-specific barriers in vitro. Furthermore, some models can incorporate immune cells or organ-specific cells to recapitulate cellular heterogeneity. Organoids have significant research value in biomedicine. Substantial progress has been made in VO research, yet several challenges persist. This review systematically summarizes the construction methods and technical optimization strategies for VOs. Recent advances in core application areas, including disease and physiological model construction, drug screening and mechanistic studies, and regenerative medicine, are described. The importance of VO heterogeneity and potential solutions is emphasized. Current technical bottlenecks are critically analyzed, and future development directions for the field are discussed.