Nanoscale metal–organic frameworks for photodynamic therapy and radiotherapy

A large number of nanomaterials have been developed and examined for applications in cancer nanotechnology in the past two decades. Among them, nanoscale metal–organic frameworks (nMOFs) have recently been explored as drug-delivery vehicles or therapeutic agents for cancer due to their intrinsic properties such as molecular modularity, structural tunability, and intrinsic porosity. Interestingly, nMOFs can be designed for light- or ionizing radiation-activated cancer therapy by integrating photosensitizing ligands or high-Z metals, respectively. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the design of nMOFs to enhance photodynamic therapy (PDT) and radiotherapy (RT). We also discuss novel strategies to stabilize photosensitizers in PDT, to overcome hypoxia-induced resistance in RT, and highlight the role of computational simulations in the rational design of nMOFs for biomedical applications.