Role of Tosylate Anions in Small Molecule Electrolytes Enabling Defect Passivation by Regulating Zinc Coordination of Zinc Oxide Hybrid Films for Organic Solar Cells

), while those using NDIN-OTs show improved fill factor (FF). These enhancements arise from the effective passivation of ZnO trap states through interactions between tosylate anions and Zn ions in the ZnO lattice, consistent with a trap-filling mechanism. This interaction facilitates electron transport, suppresses charge recombination, and increases ZnO conductivity. In addition, reduced work function, Urbach energy, and trap density further promote efficient charge transport and collection. Overall, this study demonstrates that organic SMEs are effective ZnO modifiers and offer a promising strategy for improving OSC performance.