REKAYASA BIOCHAR LIMBAH BIOMASSA BERBASIS STRUKTUR–FUNGSI UNTUK REMEDIASI, KATALISIS, DAN SISTEM ENERGI BERKELANJUTAN

Biochar and porous carbons derived from biomass waste have evolved from simple carbon materials into multifunctional engineering platforms for environmental remediation, catalysis, energy storage, and low-carbon fuel production. This review synthesizes 50 publications from 2021–2026, emphasizing recent evidence on relationships among feedstock, conversion pathways, pore architecture, surface chemistry, mass transfer, and application performance. Pyrolysis temperature cannot be treated as a single determinant of quality; performance emerges from interactions among hierarchical structure, active groups, mineral phases, heteroatoms, and mechanical stability. Three-dimensional micro-computed tomography extends conventional analysis by visualizing pore evolution and adsorption dynamics in space and time. For Cu(II) adsorption, mesopores govern access and intraparticle diffusion, while surface chemistry determines final capacity. Biological modification, magnetization, sulfidation, and bimetal loading improve selectivity or activity but introduce leaching, passivation, and production burdens. In energy systems, biomass carbon serves as solid fuel, electrode, catalyst, and anaerobic-digestion additive, with benefits governed by densification, conductivity, dosage, and process integration. A hierarchical feedstock–process–structure–mechanism–performance–sustainability framework is proposed. Priorities include operando characterization, real-matrix and continuous-flow testing, standardized stability metrics, integrated life-cycle and techno-economic assessment, and explainable artificial-intelligence modeling. This framework supports a transition from empirical optimization toward predictable, safe, and scalable material design.