Infiltrating anti-inflammatory monocytes modulate microglial activation through toll-like receptor 4/interferon–dependent pathways following traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the pediatric population. Microglia and infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages are crucial immune cells that modulate the neuroinflammatory response following TBI. Using C34, a novel pharmacologic toll-like receptor 4 inhibitor, we investigated the intricate interactions between these cells in a murine TBI model. METHODS A murine controlled cortical impact model was used, and the results were analyzed on postinjury days 1, 7, 28, and 35. The experimental groups are as follows: (1) sham C57BL/6 wild-type (WT), (2) TBI WT, (3) sham WT + C34, and (4) TBI WT + C34. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to quantify gene expression associated with microglial activation, apoptotic pathways, and type 1 interferon pathway. Flow cytometry was used to isolate microglia and infiltrating monocytes. Brain lesion volumes were assessed using magnetic resonance imaging. Last, neurocognitive outcomes were evaluated using the Morris Water Maze test. Student's t test and one-way analysis of variance were used for statistical analysis with significance achieved when p < 0.05. RESULTS Toll-like receptor 4 inhibition leads to improved neurological sequela post-TBI, possibly because of an increase in infiltrating anti-inflammatory monocytes and a decrease in IFN regulatory factor 7 during acute inflammation, followed by a reduction in apoptosis and M2 microglial expression during chronic inflammation. CONCLUSION Toll-like receptor 4 inhibition with C34 skews infiltrating monocytes toward an anti-inflammatory phenotype, leading to enhanced neurocognitive outcomes. Moreover, although M2 microglia have been consistently shown as inducers of neuroprotection, our results clearly demonstrate their detrimental role during the chronic phases of healing post-TBI.