Photovoltaic arrays reshape multitrophic biodiversity through spatial heterogeneity in Qinghai Tibet Plateau alpine meadows

Solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays are rapidly expanding in grasslands, yet their ecological effects in high-altitude alpine meadows remain poorly understood. On the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the distinctive climate and high ecological sensitivity of alpine meadows suggest that PV-induced microhabitat heterogeneity may generate complex multi-trophic responses. We surveyed vascular plants, plateau pikas and zokors, and soil bacterial communities across grazing lands, fenced enclosures, and three PV microhabitats: beneath panels, panel edges, and inter-panel gaps. PV deployment was associated with cooler, moister, less wind-exposed near-surface conditions during summer sampling, together with shifts in plant, small-mammal, and bacterial richness and diversity. Piecewise SEM indicated that microclimatic variation was the most consistent upstream pathway, with soil and vegetation acting as intermediate links. Beneath panels had higher vegetation cover, biomass, and small-mammal activity, whereas inter-panel gaps supported higher bacterial diversity and abundance, highlighting within-site spatial heterogeneity in shaping biodiversity responses to PV infrastructure.