Note on hydrostatic skeletons: muscles operating within a pressurized environment

Muscles and muscle fibers are volume-constant constructs that deform when contracted and develop internal pressures. However, muscles embedded in hydrostatic skeletons are also exposed to external pressures generated by their activity. For two examples, the pressure generation in spiders and in annelids, we used simplified biomechanical models to demonstrate that high intracellular pressures diminishing the resulting tensile stress of the muscle fibers are avoided in the hydrostatic skeleton. The findings are relevant for a better understanding of the design and functionality of biological hydrostatic skeletons.