A review of the processing, analysis and application of animal bone-derived collagen

Collagen is the most abundant structural protein in vertebrates, underpinning connective tissue integrity and widely utilised across biomedical, cosmetic, and food industries. Global demand for collagen, gelatine, and hydrolysed collagen peptides continues to rise, driven by consumer interest in skin, joint, and bone health, alongside industrial applications in biomaterials and functional foods. Bone-derived collagen represents a particularly valuable but underexploited source due to its mineralised matrix and sustainable valorisation potential. Current extraction strategies spanning acid, enzymatic, and combined hydrolytic approaches have improved yields and functionality, yet remain challenged by crosslinking, solubility, and downstream purification costs. Analytical characterisation of collagen and its derivatives increasingly employ advanced methods such as mass spectrometry, circular dichroism, and bioactivity assays, although regulatory frameworks still emphasise safety over efficacy. Future research progress is required to link extraction efficiency, functional validation, sustainability metrics, and regulatory alignment, to unlock collagen’s full market and therapeutic potential. • Valorisation of animal bone waste as sustainable collagen source • Comparative review of acid, enzymatic, and combined hydrolysis methods • Advances in analytical tools for collagen peptides and bioactivity validation • Regulatory frameworks prioritise safety over functional efficacy worldwide • Future directions link sustainability, efficiency, and commercial translation