Natural Expression of a Machine Learning Model's Uncertainty Through Verbal and Non-Verbal Behavior of Intelligent Virtual Agents

Uncertainty cues are inherent in natural human interaction, as they signal to communication partners how much they can rely on conveyed information. Humans subconsciously provide such signals both verbally (e.g., through expressions such as “maybe’’ or “I think’’) and non-verbally (e.g., by diverting their gaze). In contrast, artificial intelligence (AI)-based services and machine learning (ML) models such as ChatGPT usually do not disclose the reliability of answers to their users.