Solution-plasma-derived Fe–N–C/NiFe-LDH composite for bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysis: effects of surface modification and LDH growth

shifted positively by 95 mV after 1000 potential cycles, indicating that the initial OER enhancement was not fully maintained. These results highlight the need to balance surface functionalization, preservation of ORR-active structures, NiFe-LDH loading and coverage, and structural durability in the design of Fe-N-C/NiFe-LDH bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysts.