Antimony toxicity in soils and plants, and mechanisms of its alleviation

Antimony (Sb) is a non-essential element for plants, animals, and humans. With increased anthropogenic inputs from mining and industrial activities, ore processing, vehicle emissions, and shooting activities, elevated Sb levels in the environment have become a growing concern. Despite of its non-essentiality, some plants can take up and accumulate Sb in relatively high concentrations in their organs. At increased concentration in edible plant parts or medicinal herbs it may pose health risks to humans and livestock. Although most of Sb is stored in root tissues, a smaller quantity of this metalloid can be translocated to the shoot depending on the plant species, where it exerts a variety of deleterious effects. Its chemical speciation has an influence on its behavior in the environment and its ecotoxicity. Inhibition of photosynthesis, modified root and leaf anatomy, activation of plant antioxidant system, or disruption of plant membrane system are some of the negative effects of Sb on plant growth and development. Studies on mitigation methods are quite important in order to produce food crops in a safe way. Application of silicon, selenium, biochar, nanoparticles, and microorganisms are proven to be emerging strategies for reducing the Sb toxicity.