Techno-economic and environmental assessment of closed-loop photovoltaic recycling in China

Faced with the large-scale disposal of waste photovoltaic (PV) modules, identifying sustainable recycling pathways in terms of both environmental and economic performance is crucial. Utilizing life cycle assessment and techno-economic analysis, we compared three recovery scenarios—full recovery (R1), aluminum frame and glass recovery (R2), and aluminum frame recovery (R3)—with landfilling, based on closed-loop recycling practices in China. The results show that glass recovery is a key contributor to environmental benefits, while silver recovery is the most profitable, followed by glass, aluminum, silicon , and copper recovery. From an economic perspective, R1 performs the best, yielding the highest Return on Investment (ROI) at 52.17 %, achieved by recovering all components. R2 is ideal for small startups, with a 39.53 % ROI and an initial investment 47.1 % lower than that of R1. In terms of environmental impact, R1 and R2 exhibit normalized benefits of 2.98 and 2.73, respectively, within the closed-loop recycling system. R1 stands out by reducing toxic impacts by 35 %, though it faces water eutrophication . In contrast, R3 underperforms, with landfilling of residues leading to poor environmental and economic outcomes, including a − 31.00 % ROI and an additional normalized impact of 0.55. Considering the variety of recycling scales in the industry, this study provides policy recommendations for enhancing the sustainability of the PV sector. Recyclers may adopt R2 in the early stages of PV recycling to recover aluminum frames and glass, while different PV recycling enterprises are expected to collaborate in an upstream-downstream model in the future.