Transcriptomic and metabolomic insights into the roles of exogenous β-hydroxybutyrate acid for the development of rumen epithelium in young goats

β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA), as one of the main metabolic ketones in the rumen epithelium, plays critical roles in cellular growth and metabolism. The ketogenic capacity is associated with the maturation of rumen in young ruminants, and the exogenous BHBA in diet may promote the rumen development. However, the effects of exogenous BHBA on rumen remain unknown. This is the first study to investigate the mechanisms of BHBA on gene expression and metabolism of rumen epithelium using young goats as model through multi-omics techniques. Thirty-two young goats were divided into control, low dose, middle dose, and high dose groups by supplementation of BHBA in starter (0, 3, 6, and 9 g/day, respectively). Results demonstrated the dietary of BHBA promoted the growth performance of young goats and increased width and length of the rumen papilla (P < 0.05). Hub genes in host transcriptome that were positively related to rumen characteristics and BHBA concentration were identified. Several upregulated hub genes including NDUFC1, NDUFB4, NDUFB10, NDUFA11 and NDUFA1 were enriched in the gene ontology (GO) pathway of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) activity, while ATP5ME, ATP5PO and ATP5PF were associated with ATP synthesis. RT-PCR revealed the expression of genes (HMGCS2, BDH1, SLC16A3, etc.) associated with lipolysis increased significantly by BHBA supplementation (P < 0.05). Metabolomics indicated some metabolites such as glucose, palmitic acid, cortisol and capric acid were also increased (P < 0.05). This study revealed that BHBA promoted rumen development through altering NADH balance and accelerating lipid metabolism, which provides theoretical guidance for the strategies of gastrointestinal health and development of young ruminants.