Activism on a leash: national education policies' framing of youth activism in Australia, England and the United States

Despite rhetorical commitment to democratic education, education policies in liberal democracies systematically constrain youth activism. Through comparative analysis of 31 policy documents from Australian, English and American departments of education (2010–2025), we examine how framing of youth activism is constructed. Drawing on scholarship distinguishing repertoires of action, spheres of engagement, citizenship models, and the Narrative Policy Framework, we reveal consistent cross-national patterns: policies privilege service-oriented over political repertoires; marginalise digital activism; focus on individual psychological traits and state-managed collectives rather than youth-initiated movements; and promote personally responsible and participatory citizenship while marginalising justice-oriented approaches. Contentious activism, such as protests, strikes, and direct action, is virtually absent from all documents. Our findings expose how democratic states promote depoliticised, institutions-friendly participation whilst rendering contentious activism invisible or illegitimate.