Modelling executive function across early childhood: Longitudinal invariance, development from 3.5 to 7 years and later academic performance

This study examined (1) longitudinal invariance of executive function (EF) factors across early childhood, (2) EF development, and (3) its association with later cognitive functions and academic performance. We measured cognitive flexibility, working memory, inhibitory control, and complex EF in 465 children (72% white) at 3.5, 5, 6, and 7 years. Confirmatory factor analyses supported a one-factor EF model at each age. Across time, factor loadings were invariant, and intercepts were invariant for measures of cognitive flexibility only. In latent growth analyses, EF increased more rapidly between 3.5 and 6 than 6–7 years. EF at 3.5 years and its growth (slope from 3.5 to 7 years) predicted later executive and non-executive function in hypothesized ways, indicating that the factor captured EF rather than other general cognitive abilities. Moreover, EF at 3.5 years and its growth predicted academic performance at 9 and 17 years, suggesting that interventions to improve EF could have the potential to improve academic performance across elementary and secondary education. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, NCR, upon reasonable request, but are subject to institutional, federal and provincial privacy regulations.