Two is better? combining EEG and fMRI for BCI and neurofeedback: a systematic review

Abstract Electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are two commonly used non-invasive techniques for measuring brain activity in neuroscience and brain–computer interfaces (BCI). Objective . In this review, we focus on the use of EEG and fMRI in neurofeedback (NF) and discuss the challenges of combining the two modalities to improve understanding of brain activity and achieve more effective clinical outcomes. Advanced technologies have been developed to simultaneously record EEG and fMRI signals to provide a better understanding of the relationship between the two modalities. However, the complexity of brain processes and the heterogeneous nature of EEG and fMRI present challenges in extracting useful information from the combined data. Approach . We will survey existing EEG–fMRI combinations and recent studies that exploit EEG–fMRI in NF, highlighting the experimental and technical challenges. Main results . We made a classification of the different combination of EEG-fMRI for NF, we provide a review of multimodal analysis methods for EEG–fMRI features. We also survey the current state of research on EEG-fMRI in the different existing NF paradigms. Finally, we also identify some of the remaining challenges in this field. Significance . By exploring EEG-fMRI combinations in NF, we are advancing our knowledge of brain function and its applications in clinical settings. As such, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, clinicians, and engineers working in the field of neural engineering and rehabilitation, highlighting the promising future of EEG-fMRI-based NF.