Synthesizing VR Immersion, Presence, and Interactivity on TAM Variables in Visual Culture Art Education: A Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modeling Approach

This study uses Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modeling (MASEM) to synthesize 34 empirical studies examining how VR characteristics—immersion (IMM), presence (PRE), and interactivity (INT)—relate to key TAM variables, including perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEOU), and behavioral intention (BI) in visual culture art education (VCAE). The MASEM model fits the pooled correlation matrix well. Among them, INT demonstrates the strongest direct association with BI, whereas IMM exerts the highest total association, operating primarily through indirect paths. In particular, IMM is strongly associated with PRE, and PRE-centered routes account for a substantial share of IMM’s overall association with PU/PEOU and BI. Moderation analysis reveals that the VR immersion level explains broader heterogeneity than the learning setting. Overall, this study clarifies the pooled relational structure of VR acceptance in VCAE, identifies key boundary conditions underlying prior inconsistencies, and provides evidence-based considerations for VR-based VCAE research and instructional design.