Sustainable strategies for graphite anode regeneration: Strategic importance, degradation mechanisms, and comprehensive regeneration strategies

The growing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) across various applications, from portable electronics to electric vehicles (EVs), has raised significant environmental concerns regarding their end-of-life management. Current recycling practices, while offering efficient strategies for the recovery of critical metals from cathodes, have not fully addressed the development of innovative strategies for the recovery and regeneration of anode graphite components with reduced or absent environmental impacts. This review focuses on environmentally sustainable technologies for the regeneration of graphite anodes in spent LIBs. A range of innovative approaches were reviewed aiming at restoring the structural integrity and electrochemical performance of degraded graphite, reducing reliance on virgin materials for future applications. The reviewed technologies, including doping-assisted healing, microwave/plasma-based treatments, bio-thermal regeneration, thermal annealing and hydrometallurgical processes, all prioritize energy efficiency, minimum hazardous waste generation, and improved resource efficiency. Special attention is given to the mechanisms of these regeneration strategies, their current technological readiness levels, and the challenges limiting broader adoption. By highlighting promising sustainable pathways for anode regeneration, this review aims to contribute to a more circular economy for LIBs, reducing their environmental footprint and advancing a sustainable energy future.