Sensitive enzyme-free electrochemical sensors for the detection of pesticide residues in food and water

Pesticides have been impudently used to boost agricultural production, but their excessive and uncontrolled use inevitably affects the soil and water, eventually entering the food chain. In this regard, this review illustrates the progress made in non-enzymatic electrochemical sensors over the past six years (2018-2023), focusing on novel nanoscale materials like metal-organic framework (MOF), carbon nanomaterials, metallic nanoparticles, and nanocomposite as electrode modifiers. The first section discusses an insight into the electrochemical sensors' detection mechanism and different electrochemical sensing techniques. Further, sensors are categorized according to the screen printed electrode (SPE), glassy carbon electrode (GCE), carbon paste electrode (CPE), etc., and their application for quantifying pesticide residues in fruits, vegetables, and water is described in the subsequent section. A critical discussion about the challenges and future scope is provided to motivate the researchers in this domain.