Transgenerational effects of water-soluble polymers on Daphnia magna at environmentally relevant concentrations: The role of multigenerational plasticity

generation exposed to PEG, which decreased in later generations, indicating a possible epigenetic mechanism underlying observed reproductive effects. In contrast, PVA exhibited no significant changes in both life history parameters and methylation but showed a global methylation trend suggesting its likely epigenetic influence. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive risk assessments of WSPs, particularly their potential for inducing long-term (epigenetic) effects, influencing reproductive functions across generations and how increased plasticity may affect responses against novel other stressors.