Perovskite solar cells and modules: pathways to high efficiency, long-term stability, and scalable manufacturing

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have become a game-changing photovoltaic technology because they can convert more than 26% of power in the lab for single-junction devices and more than 34% for perovskite/silicon tandems. But there are three related problems that need to be solved before this technology can be sold: turning record efficiencies into large-area modules, making sure they work well in the real world for a long time, and developing scalable manufacturing processes that can handle industrial throughput needs. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of recent innovations that address these challenges through synchronized advancements in processing methodologies, device architecture optimization, and materials engineering. We look into how interfacial modification methods, like selfassembled monolayers and supramolecular additives, can make things more stable and efficient at the same time by stopping ions from moving and covering up defects. To see how important the switch from laboratory spin-coating to scalable deposition methods like slot-die coating, blade coating, and laminar airflow-assisted drying is, we compare film quality, material use, and module performance. We also make quantitative connections between laboratory stress tests and real-world degradation patterns by combining data from multi-year outdoor studies with accelerated aging protocols. Our analysis shows that a lot of progress has been made, but to reach 30-year operational lifetimes, we need integrated solutions that take into account the fact that efficiency, stability, and scalability constraints are all linked. At the moment, modules have a 15% efficiency at 0.79 m2 and a three-year outdoor degradation rate of less than 3%.