Bioprinted 3-dimensional lung organoids for respiratory disease modeling and therapeutic applications

Advances in 3-dimensional (3D) lung models have created new opportunities in respiratory research, providing alternatives to conventional 2-dimensional cultures and animal models. Lung organoids, derived from pluripotent stem cells or adult progenitors, recapitulate key structural and functional features of the human lung, enabling studies in development, disease modeling, and drug testing. Nevertheless, limitations such as the absence of vascularization and mechanical stimuli have driven the integration of complementary technologies. Organ-on-a-chip systems recreate the dynamic physiological microenvironment using microfluidic channels and mechanical actuation, while 3D bioprinting enables precise spatial control of cell types and tissue architecture. This review summarizes the current status and future perspectives of lung organoids, organ-on-a-chip platforms, and bioprinting techniques, with an emphasis on their synergistic applications for developing human-relevant lung models. We highlight recent advances in fabricating complex lung constructs, including both alveolar and airway models, and discuss their potential roles in disease modeling, personalized medicine, and regenerative therapies. The convergence of these technologies represents a transformative approach in pulmonary research, promising more predictive models for drug screening and novel strategies for tissue engineering and clinical translation.