Bone health in diabetes and prediabetes

Bone fragility has been recognized as a complication of diabetes, both type 1 diabetes (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D), whereas the relationship between prediabetes and fracture risk is less clear.Fractures can deeply impact a diabetic patient's quality of life.However, the mechanisms underlying bone fragility in diabetes are complex and have not been fully elucidated.Patients with T1D generally exhibit low bone mineral density (BMD), although the relatively small reduction in BMD does not entirely explain the increase in fracture risk.On the contrary, patients with T2D or prediabetes have normal or even higher BMD as compared with healthy subjects.These observations suggest that factors other than bone mass may influence fracture risk.Some of these factors have been identified, including disease duration, poor glycemic control, presence of diabetes complications, and certain antidiabetic drugs.Nevertheless, currently available tools for the prediction of risk inadequately capture diabetic patients at increased risk of fracture.Aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of bone health and the mechanisms responsible for increased susceptibility to fracture across the spectrum of glycemic status, spanning from insulin resistance to overt forms of diabetes.The management of bone fragility in diabetic patient is also discussed.