Bone implants with triply periodic minimal surface architectures: design, fabrication, and biological performance

Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS)-based bone implants are an innovative approach in orthopedic implantology, offering customized solutions for bone defect repair and regeneration. This review comprehensively examines the current research landscape of TPMS-based bone implants, addressing key challenges and proposing future directions. It explores design strategies aimed at optimizing mechanical strength and enhancing biological integration, with a particular emphasis on TPMS structures. These design strategies include graded, hierarchical, and hybrid designs, each contributing to the overall functionality and performance of the implants. This review also highlights state-of-the-art fabrication technologies, particularly advancements in additive manufacturing (AM) techniques for creating metal-based, polymer-based, and ceramic-based bone implants. The ability to precisely control the architecture of TPMS structures using AM techniques is crucial for tailoring the mechanical and biological properties of such implants. Furthermore, this review critically evaluates the biological performance of TPMS implants, focusing on their potential to promote bone ingrowth and regeneration. Key factors, such as mechanical properties, permeability, and biocompatibility, are examined to determine the effectiveness of these implants in clinical applications. By synthesizing existing knowledge and proposing innovative research directions, this review underscores the transformative potential of TPMS-based bone implants in orthopedic surgery. The objective is to improve clinical outcomes and enhance patient care through advanced implant designs and manufacturing techniques.